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Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是语言学A ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage对语言进行的科学研究)Processoflinguisticstudy: Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed; Hypothesesareformulated; Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations; AlinguistictheoryisconstructedB ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通语言学：thestudyoflanguageasawhole从整体研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5. Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6. Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguisticsC Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics Prescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性 Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.diachronic（historical）linguisticssynchroniclinguistics SpeechandwritingSpokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten LangueandparoleProposedbySwisslinguistsFdeSausse（sociological）Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity扌旨一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言运用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistNChomsky（psychological）Competence:theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）Whatislanguage?什么是语言A ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（语言是-个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a）System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根据规则组合在一起）b）Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c）Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d）Human:languageishuman-specific（语言是人类所独有的）B Designfeatures（uniqueproperties）:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征） Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）b）somecompoundwords（某些复合词） Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）（语言是-个系统,包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性） Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations） Culturaltransition（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位学A Thedefinitionofphonetics（语音学）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（发音语音学）Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（听觉语音学）Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（声学语音学）B Organsofspeech（发音器官）Voiceless:清冃音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced（Voicing）:浊音whenthevocalcords声带aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowels兀音aretypicallyvoiced（voicing）.Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齿2,teethridge（alveolus）齿龈3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate（velum）软腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords声带10C Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds:Broadandnarrowtranscriptions(语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音)一一IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly(代表字母的符号)Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符)E.g.:lTli:f-Taclearl(nodiacritic)lTbild-Tadarkl()lThelp-Tadentall()pTpit-Tanaspiratedph(h表示送气)pTspit-Tanunaspiratedp(nodiacritic)nTSbtnTasyllabicnasaln(養)D ClassificationofEnglishconsonants(英语辅音的分类)Intermsofmannerofarticulation根据发音方法分(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated) Stops闭塞音：theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptlyp/b,t/d,k/g Fricatives摩擦音：theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonthf/v,s/z,J/3，/可，h(approximant) Affricates塞擦音：theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricativestJ/d3 Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouthlTalateralsound;rTretroflex Glides滑音：w,j(semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+hTapproximants Nasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughitm,n,nByplaceofarticulation根据发音部位分(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated) bilabial双唇音:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructionsp/b,wT(velar) labiodentals唇齿音：thelowerlipandtheupperteethf/v dental齿音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth0/8 alveolar齿龈音：thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridget/d,s/z,n,l,r palatal腭音：tongueinthemiddleofthepalate0/8,tJ/d3,j velars软腭因：thebackofthetongueagainstthevelumk,g,nglottal喉音：theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynxhE ClassificationofEnglishvowels(英语兀音的分类) Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back; Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open; Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept达Allthebackvowels,exceptA:areroundedvowelsThelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynx-（tense）or（lax）Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowelsF Thedefinitionofphonology（音位学）Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.G Phone,phoneme,andallophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone：aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）H Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyreinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&bin-/p/vs./b/rope&robe-/p/vs./b/（要会判断！）Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme（alwaysinthesameposition）,thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.I Somerulesinphonology sequentialrules序列规则Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：Nol:/s/第一个音位一定是/s/voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二个音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三个音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2:Theaffricatestf,d3andthesibilantss,z,0,8arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants. assimilationrules同化规则Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffects兀音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化现象 deletionrule/Elision省略规则Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略词末鼻辅音前的g音J Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征） Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement Tone声调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素-一样可以区别意义Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level,rise,fall-rise,fall阴平阳平上声去声 Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四种语调Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降调声调将声调升降调Chapter3Morphology形态学AThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsare二eformed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）rLLLrLLLrLLLrLLLrLLLrLLLrLLL1Morpheme:词素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意义的最基本要素）（Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意义单位或者语法功能）B Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由词素和黏着词素）Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewords-Lexicalmorphemesn.a.v&functionalmorphemesconj.prep.art.pron.Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform-Derivationalmorphemes派生词素Taffix词缀（suffix,infix,prefix）+root后缀中缀前缀+词根Inflectionalmorphemes曲折词素T8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-s,-spossessive所有格;plural复数Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人称单数；presentparticiple现在分词；pasttense过去式,pastparticiple过去分词Adj+-er,-estcomparative比较级；superlative最高级C DerivationalvsInflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory词的范畴；DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root（stem）+derivational+inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折D MorphologicalRules形态学规则（词的构成方式T词素是怎样组合成为词）N.+lyTa.;A.+lyTadv.;guardovergeneralization巴Morphsandallomorphs语素和语素变体Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.e.g.mapmapssdogdogszwatchwatchesizmousemiceaioxoxenntoothteethsheepsheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.FWord-formationprocess(构词法) Coinagetheinventionoftotallynewterms(仓U造全新的词) BorrowingTthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages Compoundingajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform(组成复合词) BlendingTtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword ClippingTawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform BackformationTaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword ConversionTcategorychange,functionalshift AcronymsTnewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords DerivationTthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords(添加词缀) AbbreviationTashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform(缩短原词)Chapter4Syntax句法学AThedefinitionofsyntaxSyntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences(句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分illillillIrIillillillill支)C TypesofsentencesSimplesentence简单句：consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsCoordinate(Compound)sentence并列(复合)句：containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledaloneasitsownsentence.coordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”，“by”，“or”.Complexsentence复杂句：containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句GTmatrixclause主句 subordinatorfunctionsasagrammaticalunitmaybecompleteB Somecategories(范畴)Syntacticcategorie*refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范畴Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)词汇范畴Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP短语范畴CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberTYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)(短语结构规则)STNPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)NPT(det.限定词)(Adj.)N(PP)(S).“T”：包括/分为VPT(qual.修饰词)V(NP)(POP)(S).“()”：内部的成分可以省略APT(deg.程度词)A(PP)(S).“”：可以选择附加其他补语PPT(deg.)PNP. X-bartheoryHeadTanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPT(Specifier)X(complement)Formula:X”TSpecXX-bartheory(X-barschema)XTXcomplD Transformationalrules转换规贝卩TD-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Deepstructure:thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.Itisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable.SurfaCestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration:D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysisE SyntacticRelationsSequential(syntagmatic)relations组合关系ThelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合关系)Ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.F ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare.Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemesLabeledICanalysissyntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories:1) morphologicalfeatures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.)2) syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccurdeterminer(Det.)noun(n.)qualifierverb(v.)Det.degreeword(Deg)modifiern.Categorytheboyoftenplaysaverysmallballmust,should.auxiliary(Aux.)and,but,or.conjunction(Con.)G ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.sentencesareusedtobuildclausesareusedtobuildphrasesareusedtobuildwordsareusedtobuildmorphemesSentencesareanalyzedintoclausesareanalyzedintophrasesareanalyzedintowordsareanalyzedintomorphemessentencesSotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirectionChapter5Semantics语义学AThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（对意义的研究）BSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning关于意义研究的一些观点 thenamingtheory命名论Referent（realobject）所指Thought/reference-concept思想/指称 theconceptualistview概念论Symbol/Form（words）符号/形式 contextualism:JohnFirth语境论 behaviorism弓Bloomfield行为主义论basedoncontextualistviewS:stimulusr:responseJillJackSrsR（thesmalllettersr,sTspeech）（thecapitalizedletterR,Spracticalevents）C Senseandreference（意义和指称）Sensej:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized（主要涉及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog.MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.D Majorsenserelations（主要的意义关系）synonymy同义现象弓thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaninga. dialectalsynonyms方言同义词synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英语）b. stylisticsynonyms文体同义词synonymsdifferinginstyle（问题、正式度不同）c. synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义）d. collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词e. semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同） polysemy多义现象newordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaning homonymy同音异义Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音异义发音一样Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形异义拼写一样Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSounc完全同音异义词 hyponymy下义关系inclusiveness包含关系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate上坐标词Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐标词 antonymy反义词oppositenessGradableantonyms等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementaryantonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female）Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（关系反义词）E Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之间的意义关系XissynonymouswithY（X与Y同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假 XisinconsistentwithY（X与Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真 XentailsY（YisanentailmentofX）（X蕴含Y（Y是X的一个含义）如果X真，Y一定真（去过法国T一定去过欧洲）如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国弓去/没去过欧洲欧洲） XpresupposesY（YisaprerequisiteofX）（X预设Y（Y是X的先决条件）如果X真，Y一定真如果X假，Y仍然真 XisacontradictionX自我矛盾（总是假） XissemanticallyanomalousX语义反常F Componentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析法分析词汇意义的方法）Semanticfeatures语义特征：themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemedistinctivefeatures区别特征ShowhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaningG PredicationanalysisTawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistGLeech（述谓结构分析法-分析句子意义的方法） themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal（ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents） Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括语法意义和语义意义Grammaticality语法规范性selectionalrestrictions选择限制规则Semanticanalysis:Predication（basicunit）述谓结构Ttheabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意义Argument（s）变兀（名词成分）predicate谓词（谓语）Logicalparticipant（s）Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument（s）inasentenceThepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement.Tomsmokes.TTOM（SMOKE）Tone-placepredicationKidslikeapples.TKID,APPLE（LIKE）Ttwo-placepredicationItsraining.T（BERAIN）Tno-placepredicationChapter6Pragmatics语用学AThedefinitionofpragmaticsPragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication（是研究某一语言的使用者如何使用句子而达到成功交际）WhatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisJJL-wllwr-wr-wr-wr-wr-wr-fMr-wr-wr-wr-wffrr-frr-frr-frr-frr-frr-frr-frr-f-iconsidered.（在意义的研究中是否考虑到了语境的音素）Ifitisnot,itissemantic
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