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基于基于 S7-200PLC 的四层电梯控制系统设计的四层电梯控制系统设计 摘摘 要要 本课题设计的意义在于改变了以往继电器控制的电梯可靠性和稳定性差的 缺点,鉴于继电器控制存在着上述的种种弊端,现将 PLC 应用于电梯控制,收到 了良好效果。可编程控制器应用于电梯控制,用软件编程替代原有继电器硬件 布线控制,使控制系统具有了极大的柔性和通用性。随着人们对其要求的提高, 电梯得到了快速发展,其拖动技术已经发展到了智能控制,其逻辑控制也由 PLC 代替原来的继电器控制。本设计在已有的变频器的基础上,采用 PLC 对电 梯进行控制,通过合理的选择和设计,提高了电梯的控制水平, 并改善了电梯 运行的舒适感, 使电梯达到了较为理想的控制效果。 本文介绍一种电梯 PLC 控制系统。电梯是垂直方向的运输设备,是高层建 筑中不可缺少的交通运输设备。它靠电力,拖动一个可以载人或物的轿厢,在 建筑的井道内导轨上做垂直升降运动,在人们生活中起着举足轻重的作用。而 控制电梯运行的 PLC 系统也要求越来越高,要求达到电梯运行的“稳、准、快” 的运行目的。该系统主要由 PLC、逻辑控制电路组成。其中包括交流异步电动 机、继电器、接触器、行程开关、按钮、发光指示器组成为一体的控制系统。 本机控制单元采用以西门子的可编程控制器 PLC 对机器进行全过程控制。 关键字:可编程控制器 PLC,继电器控制,垂直运输设备 目目 录录 一、一、绪论1 2、方案设计2 2.1 电梯继电器控制系统的特点及存在问题.2 2.1.1 电梯继电器控制系统的优点2 2.2.PLC 控制电梯的优点.2 2.3.设计方案确定3 三、PLC 硬件系统的设计.3 3.1.控制器的选择3 3.2.电梯曳引电机及门电机电路图4 3.3.输入输出点数的确定4 四、软件设计4 4.1 系统结构框图6 4.2 .重要程序设计.7 4.2.1.初始平层程序设计7 4.2.2.开关门控制程序设计7 4.2.3.上下行控制程序设计8 五、总结与展望.12 参考文献.13 附录.14 附录一 完整程序汇总14 附录二 实验接线图19 第 1 页 共 19 页 一、绪绪 论论 可编程序控制器(PLC)是近十几年发展起来的一种新型工业控制器,由于 它把计算机的编程灵活,功能强大,应用面广等优点与继电器系统的控制简单, 使用方便,抗干扰能力强,价格便宜,体积小等优点结合起来,在工业生产控制 中广泛地应用。 电梯是一种特殊的垂直运输工具,都市人们的日常生活已经越来越离不开 它。现在随着我国经济的高速发展,高楼处处可见,而高楼的主要运输工具都 是电梯,所以接触电梯的人也越来越多,且随时影响人们的工作、生活、学习。 因此人们对电梯的安全性,稳定性也越来越高。 从电梯控制统的实现方法分,电梯的控制系统经历了继电器控制、可编程 序控制(PLC) 、单片微机控制、多微机控制多种形式。继电器控制系统是 80 年 代最广泛的一种电梯控制方式,有控制逻辑线路简单、直接、易于理解和掌握 的优点,但由于该类系统是由众多继电器、接触器构成,使用一段时间后其接 触点往往接触不良,所以电梯故障高,众多的继电器、接触器动作噪声较大, 整个控制柜体积大。随着多微机系统在电梯控制系统中的应用,电梯控制发生 了限大的变化,因为微机在电梯中的应用不仅取代了大部分继电器和选层器, 整个系统更加可靠,灵活性更加提高,功能大增强了。但微机的集成度高,功 能项目固化,一般维修人员及工程人员修改或增加不了其功能。如要修改或增 加其功能要找回生厂家或用专用的工具。可编程序控制器取代继电器构成的电 梯控制系统,可以实现由继电器实现的逻辑控制功能,而且触点少、可靠高、 故障率低、维修方便、噪声小最主要的是可编程序控制系统的“可编程“功能, 使得当改变电梯的控制功能时,只要更改程序即可。而 PLC 的编程语言需不尽 相同,但都有通俗易懂,便于自学的优点一般维修及工程人员都能掌握,当然 PLC 电梯控制系统只适用于小高层的楼房。 PLC 可靠性高,程序设计方便灵活。本设计在用可编程 PLC 控制,不但 提高了电梯可靠性、可维护性以及灵活性,同时延长了使用寿命,缩短了电梯 的开发周期,并提高了电梯的控制水平,改善了电梯运行的舒适感,使电梯达 到了较为理想的控制效果。 第 2 页 共 19 页 二、方案二、方案设计设计 2.1. 电梯继电器控制系统的特点及存在问题电梯继电器控制系统的特点及存在问题 2.1.1.电梯继电器控制系统的优点 (1)所有控制功能及信号处理均有硬件实现,线路直观,易于理解和掌握, 适合于一般技术人员和技术工人所掌握。 (2)系统的保养、维修及故障检查无需较高的技术和特殊的工具、仪器。 (3)大部分电器均为常用控制电器,更换方便,价格较便宜。 (4)多年来我国一直生产这类电梯,技术成熟,已经形成系列化产品,技术 资料图纸齐全,熟悉、掌握的人员较多。 2.1.2.电梯继电器控制的缺点 (1) 系统触点繁多、接线线路复杂,且触点容易烧坏磨损,造成接触不良, 因而故障率较高。 (2) 普通控制电器及硬件接线方法难以实现较复杂的控制功能,使系统的控 制功能不易增加,技术水平难以提高。 (3) 电磁机构及触点动作速度比较慢,机械和电磁惯性大,系统控制精度难 以提高。 (4) 系统结构庞大,能耗较高,机械动作噪音大。 (5) 由于线路复杂,易出现故障,因而保养维修工作量大。费用高;而且检 查故障困难,费时费工。 2.2.PLC2.2.PLC 控制电梯的优点控制电梯的优点 随着社会的不断发展,楼房越来越高,而电梯成为了高层楼房的必须设备。 电梯从手柄开关操纵电梯、按钮控制电梯发展到了现在的群控电梯,为高 层运输做出了不可磨灭的贡献。 PLC 在电梯控制上的应用主要体现在它的逻辑开关控制功能。由于 PLC 具 有逻辑运算,计数和定时以及数据输入输出的功能。在电梯控制过程中,各种 逻辑开关控制与 PLC 很好的结合,很好的实现了对电梯的控制。 电梯的电气系统由拖动系统和控制系统两部分组成。传统的电气控制系统 采 用的继电器逻辑控制由于触点多、故障率高、可靠性差、体积大等缺点, 第 3 页 共 19 页 正逐渐被淘汰。目前电梯设计使用可编程控制器(PLC),要求功能变化灵活,编 程简单,故障少,噪音低。维修保养方便,节能省工,抗干扰能力强,控制箱 占地面积少。当乘员进入电梯,按下楼层按钮,电梯门自动关闭后控制系统 进行下列运作:根据轿厢所处位置及乘员所处层数判定轿厢运行方向,保证 轿厢平层时减速。将轿厢停在选定的楼层上;同时,根据楼层的呼叫,顺路停 车,自动开关门。另外在轿厢内外均要有信号灯显示电梯运行方向及楼层。 2.3.设计方案确定设计方案确定 (1) 初始时没有呼叫信号时,电梯处于任意层,且在没有呼叫信号是电梯禁 止不动。 (2) 根据电梯最早记忆信号,再判断是上行还是下行。即就是电梯的定向。 电梯的定向根据初始信号的状态可分为两种。一种是指令定向,指令定向即是 把电梯的指令与初始状态相比较再执行“上行”或“下行” 。第二种是呼梯定向, 呼梯定向是根据呼梯信号的来源位置与当前电梯位置比较,得出“上行”或 “下行”结论。 (3) 一个方向的任务执行完要换向时,依据最远站换向原则。例如,电梯在 一楼根据二楼指令向上,此时三楼、四楼分别在呼梯向下信号。电梯到达二楼 停站,下客后继续向上。如果到三楼停站换向,则四楼的要求不能兼顾,如果 到四楼停站换向,则到三楼可顺向截车。 (4) 电梯在运行过程中,轿厢在任何相反方向上升(或下降)的外乎信号都 不响应。如果在相反方向没有外呼信号时,则电梯响应同方向外呼信号。 (5)电梯在关门之后电梯才可运行,且上行或下行指示灯显示。 (6)电梯不在平层或运行时,开门关门按钮开关不起作用。到达平层后,停 止 2s 之后轿厢门自动打开,轿厢门打开后经 3s 后电梯门自动关闭,且如果有 进入时重新计时 3s 后再关闭。且开关门信号可手动控制。 三、三、PLCPLC 硬件系统的设计硬件系统的设计 3.1.3.1.控制器的选择控制器的选择 SIMATIC 小型 S7-200 系列 PLC 适用于各行各业,各种场合中的检测、监测 及控制的自动化。S7-200 系列的强大功能使其无论在独立运行中,或相连成网 第 4 页 共 19 页 络皆能实现复杂控制功能。 S7-200 系列出色表现在以下几个方面:极高的可靠性;极丰富的指令集; 易于掌握;便捷的操作;丰富的内置集成功能;实时特性;强劲的通讯能力; 丰富的扩展模块等。S7-200 系列在集散自动化系统中充分发挥其强大功能。使 用范围可覆盖从替代继电器的简单控制到更复杂的自动化控制。应用领域极为 广泛,覆盖所有与自动检测,自动化控制有关的工业及民用领域,包括各种机 床、机械、电力设施、民用设施、环境保护设备等等。 STEP 7-Micro/WIN 32 是西门子公司专门为 S7-200 系列 PLC 设计在个人计 算机 Windows 操作系统下运行的编程软件,它的功能强大,使用方便,简单易 学,可用梯形图(LAD) 、语句表(STL)和功能块图三种编程语言编制程序,不 同的编程语言编制的程序可以相互转换。STEP 7-Micro/WIN 32 提供两套指令 集,即 SIMATIC 指令集(S7-200 方式)和国际标准指令集(IEC1131-3 方式) 。 程序编制完成之后,利用 PLC 与计算机专用的 PC/PPI 电缆传送程序至 PLC。 3.2. 电梯曳引电机及门电机电路图电梯曳引电机及门电机电路图 根据设计要求,本次设计的电气控制系统主回路原理图如图所示。图中 M1,M2 为曳引电机和门电机,交流接触器 KM1-KM4 通过控制两台电动机的运 行来控制轿厢和厅门,从而进行对电梯的控制。FR1,FR2 为起过载保护作用的 热继电器,用于电梯运行过载时断开主电路。FU1 为熔断器,起过电流保护作 用。 第 5 页 共 19 页 图一图一 电梯曳引电机及门电机电路图电梯曳引电机及门电机电路图 3.3.3.3.输入输出点数的确定输入输出点数的确定 采用 PLC 构成四层简易电梯电气控制系统。电梯的上、下行分别由 KM1 和 KM2 两台电机通过正反转控制。KM1 正转为上升,反转为电梯下降,KM2 电机正 转为开门,反转为关门。一四楼内选信号按钮 S1S4 控制,一楼上呼由按钮 U1 控制,二楼上(下)呼分别由按钮 U2、D2 控制,三楼上(下)呼分别由按 钮 U3、D3 控制,4 楼下呼用按钮 D4 控制。手动开门、手动关门分别由按钮 OP,CL 控制。一四楼平层由行程开关 SQ1、SQ2、SQ3、SQ4 控制。开(关)门 限位信号分别由行程开关 SQ5、SQ6 控制。综上所述输入点共 18 点。 一层有上升呼叫指示灯 HL1,二层有上升呼叫指示灯 HL2 以及下降呼叫指示 灯 HL3,三层有上升呼指示灯 HL4 以及下降指示灯 HL5,四层有下降呼叫指示灯 HL6。电梯内有一至四层内呼指示灯 HL7HL10 显示。电梯开门和关门分别通过 电磁铁 KM3 和 KM4 控制,轿厢上行和下行由接触器 KM1 和 KM2 控制。则共有输 出点 14 点。则由分析,输入点共有 18 点,输出点共有 14 点。 表一表一 四层电梯控制系统输入四层电梯控制系统输入/ /输出编址表输出编址表 输入编址输出编址 一层上呼按钮 U1 I0.1轿箱上升 KM1Q1.1 二层上呼按钮 U2 I0.3轿箱下降 KM2Q1.0 三层上呼按钮 U3 I0.5 一层上呼指示灯 Q0.1 二层下呼按钮 D2 I0.2 二层上呼指示灯 Q0.3 三层下呼按钮 D3 I0.4 三层上呼指示灯 Q0.5 四层下呼按钮 D4 I0.6 二层下呼指示灯 Q0.2 一层内选按钮 S1 I1.6 三层下呼指示灯 Q0.4 二层内选按钮 S2 I1.7 四层下呼指示灯 Q0.6 三层内选按钮 S3 I2.0 四层内选指示灯 Q1.5 四层内选按钮 S4 I2.1 三层内选指示灯 Q1.4 开门按钮 OP I0.7 二层内选指示灯 Q1.3 关门按钮 CL I0.0 一层内选指示灯 Q1.2 一层行程开关 SQ1 I1.1 开门控制信号 Q0.7 二层行程开关 SQ2 I1.2 关门控制信号 Q0.0 三层行程开关 SQ3 I1.3 四层指示 L4 Q2.1 四层行程开关 SQ4 I1.4 三层指示 L3 Q2.0 开门限位开关 SQ5 I1.5 二层指示 L2 Q1.7 关门限位开关 SQ6 I1.0 一层指示 L1 Q1.6 第 6 页 共 19 页 四 软件设计 4.1.4.1. 系统结构框图系统结构框图 开始 初始化(等待) 确认目标楼层 是否厅外呼叫 是否轿厢呼叫 电梯制动 延时 开门 关门 楼层信号 运行 电梯选向 目标层与所停层同层 是否目标 是否停止 Y N Y N Y Y N Y N 停止 目标层与所停层之间的关系 第 7 页 共 19 页 图二图二 程序总流程图程序总流程图 4.24.2 . .重要程序设计重要程序设计 4.2.1.4.2.1.初始平层程序设计初始平层程序设计 初次上电如果电梯不在平层位置,则自动向下运行,直到第一次平层停止.如 果没关门还的先关门再平层运动.程序如下: 4.2.2.4.2.2.开关门控制程序设计开关门控制程序设计 开关门控制程序分为开关门过程允许,开关门过程控制与平层过程控制,其 程序如下: (1)开关门允许部分程序,其他部分类推: (2)该关门过程控制程序: 第 8 页 共 19 页 (3)平层开关门过程控制 当电梯没有请求信号,在平层位置时,本层的外部信号和内部的开门信 号可以使电梯开门,程序如下: 4.2.3.4.2.3.上下行控制程序设计上下行控制程序设计 电梯上下行程序分为请求信号确定程序,上行控制程序与下行控制程序,其 程序如下: (1)请求信号确定程序,其作用是根据请求信号来确定上行,下行响应,如: 第 9 页 共 19 页 (2)上行控制程序,直接控制牵引电机的正转,如: 第 10 页 共 19 页 (3)下行控制程序,直接控制牵引电机的反转,如: 第 11 页 共 19 页 5、总结与展望总结与展望 针对这个五层电梯的控制系统,本文采用西门子 S7 200 可编程控制器设 计成电梯的楼层位置指示、轿内指令、厅外召唤指令、自动/手动开关门控制等 控制任务。经实践证明:用 P L C 可编程控制器可以非常好地模拟电梯控制系 统的测试运行,有利于 P L C 控制系统的设计、检测,具有良好的应用价值。 本论文研究的课题背景是“基于 s7-200PLC 的四层电梯的控制系统设计” , 针对这个四层电梯的控制系统 本文采用西门子 S7200 可编程控制器设计 电梯的控制系统并完成电梯的轿内指令、厅外召唤指令、楼层位置指示、平层 换速控制、开门控制等控制任务,建立电梯控制的系统模型。在此基础上研究 运用变频器进行速度的控制,以达到电梯更好的运行性能, 使其具有良好的应 第 12 页 共 19 页 用价值。 此外还有对计算机, 传感器的一些研究。通过对电梯控制系统的实 验研究,我们可以大致得出以下一些结论: 由于电梯自身的特点,要求实现了每个操作按钮功能都能模拟电梯的实物 上的按钮功能一样,各楼层电梯内的按钮,按下数字键,该键指示灯亮,在电 梯关门后,电梯将开往该楼层,到达后指示灯灭,模拟电梯的上下位置是用检 测开关获得的。考虑到使用 S7-200 的 PLC,我用的是 Step7-Micro/Win 4.0 来编写程序的,它没有硬件态功能,所以的硬件 I/O 地址都由模块物理位置确 定的,相比 STEP7 V5.3 软件来说,Step7-Micro/Win 4.0 要简单得多,易于 操作。 在电梯设计的机械电气方面,还有一些可以改进的地方。电梯的平层功能 中用的传感器是红外线的,性能不太好,外界光线对它的影响较大,同时其物 理尺寸也太小,只要轿厢稍有些偏差就不动作或损坏。 电梯不仅是代步的工具,也是人类物质文明的标志。 电梯技术的发展水平 体现了社会的科学进步水平。摩天大楼的高度限制,不仅是建筑技术上的困难, 一个重要的因素是受电梯提升高度的限制。相信随着电梯技术的开发研究,高效、 高速、智能化控制的电梯一定会提供优质良好的服务。无机房、无齿轮、电磁 兼容性、远程监控、使用新材料等技术将是电梯工业今后几年的主要研究方向。 由于国外先进的安装技术和维护保养技术的引进,目前电梯安装,特别是 提升高度较高的电梯安装,普遍采用无脚手架安装法进行电梯的安装。同时, 与电梯相关的基础工业的进步、现代化管理手段的贯彻和安装工人的技术能力 的培养, 为电梯安装的快捷、准确提供了方便。为提高维护保养工作的质量, 及时解决和预防电梯在使用过程中的突发故障和运行隐患,一些电梯企业借助 计算机网络建立了电梯监视或监控系统,有效地提高在用电梯的完好率,及时排 除电梯所发生的故障,最大限度地维护电梯用户的权利。 虽然目前中国是世界上最大的电梯市场,但是,各类电梯使用普及率与国 外发达国家相比,还存在相当的发展空间。即使达到了国外发达国家的水平, 每年电梯的更新,也具有相当的数量。 目前电梯在国际上发展的比较迅速,特别是在某些特殊场合和有发展前景, 而国产电梯在性能上存在着一些问题,因此加强电梯的研究成果很有必要, 研 究运用高级控制,传感器的提高以此来弥补元件的不足,达到更好的运行性能, 将中国国产的电梯推向国际市场。因此,充分了解电梯发展趋势,掌握其中的 核心技术,创建含有自主知识产权的民族品牌,任重而道远。 第 13 页 共 19 页 参考文献: 1吴中俊,黄永红.可编程控制器原理及应用2. 北京: 机械工业出版社,2004 2陈立定,吴玉香,苏开才.电气控制与可编程控制器M.广州:华南理工大学出版社,2001 3郑学伟.基于 PLC 的电梯控制系统DB.中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库,2009 4黄立培.变频器应用技术及电动机调速M.北京:人民邮电出版社,1997 5张燕宾.SPWM 变频调速应用技术M. 北京:机械工业出版社,1997 6李秧耕,何乔治,何峰.电梯基本原理及安装维修全书M.北京:机械工业出版社,2003 7刘裁文.电梯控制系统M.北京:电子工业出版社,1996 8贺玲芳.基于 PLC 控制的全自动变频恒压供水系统J.西安:西安科技学院学报,2000 9林小峰.可编程控制器原理及应用M. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 1991 10张晓峰,张静电气控制与可编程控制技术及应用M 北京:国防工业出版社, 2010 第 14 页 共 19 页 附录附录 附录一 完整程序汇总 第 15 页 共 19 页 第 16 页 共 19 页 第 17 页 共 19 页 第 18 页 共 19 页 第 19 页 共 19 页 附录二 实验接线图 第 20 页 共 19 页 第 21 页 共 19 页 请删除以下内容,请删除以下内容,O(_)O 谢谢!谢谢!The origin of taxation in the United States can be traced to the time when the colonists were heavily taxed by Great Britain on everything from tea to legal and business documents that were required by the Stamp Tax. The colonists disdain for this taxation without representation (so-called because the colonies had no voice in the establishment of the taxes) gave rise to revolts such as the Boston Tea Party. However, even after the Revolutionary War and the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, the main source of revenue for the newly created states was money received from customs and excise taxes on items such as carriages, sugar, whiskey, and snuff. Income tax first appeared in the United States in 1862, during the Civil War. At that time only about one percent of the population was required to pay the tax. A flat-rate income tax was imposed in 1867. The income tax was repealed in its entirety in 1872. Income tax was a rallying point for the Populist party in 1892, and had enough support two years later that Congress passed the Income Tax Act of 1894. The tax at that time was two percent on individual incomes in excess of $4,000, which meant that it reached only the wealthiest members of the population. The Supreme Court struck down the tax, holding that it violated the constitutional requirement that direct taxes be apportioned among the states by population (pollock v. farmers loan the explanation of the tax reform act of 1986 was more than thirteen hundred pages long (Pub. L. 99-514, Oct. 22, 1986, 100 Stat. 2085). Commerce Clearing House, a publisher of tax information, released a version of the Internal Revenue Code in the early 1990s that was four times thicker than its version in 1953. Changes to the tax laws often reflect the times. The flat tax of 1913 was later replaced with a graduated tax. After the United States entered world war i, the War Revenue Act of 1917 imposed a maximum tax rate for individuals of 67 percent, compared with a rate of 13 percent in 1916. In 1924 Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon, speaking to Congress about the high level of taxation, stated, The present system is a failure. It was an emergency measure, adopted under the pressure of war necessity and not to be counted upon as a permanent part of our revenue structure. The high rates put pressure on taxpayers to reduce their taxable income, tend to destroy individual initiative and enterprise, and seriously impede the development of productive business. Ways will always be found to avoid taxes so destructive in their nature, and the only way to save the situation is to put the taxes on a reasonable basis that will permit business to go on and industry to develop. Consequently, the Revenue Act of 1924 reduced the maximum individual tax rate to 43 percent (Revenue Acts, June 2, 1924, ch. 234, 43 Stat. 253). In 1926 the rate was further reduced to 25 percent. The Revenue Act of 1932 was the first tax law passed during the Great Depression (Revenue Acts, June 6, 1932, ch. 209, 47 Stat. 169). It increased the individual maximum rate from 25 to 63 percent, and reduced personal exemptions from $1,500 to $1,000 for single persons, and from $3,500 to $2,500 for married couples. The national industrial recovery act of 1933 (NIRA), part of President franklin d. roosevelts new deal, imposed a five percent excise tax on dividend receipts, imposed a capital stock tax and an excess profits tax, and suspended all deductions for losses (June 16, 1933, ch. 90, 48 Stat. 195). The repeal in 1933 of the eighteenth amendment, which had prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol, brought in an estimated $90 million in new liquor taxes in 1934. The social security act of 1935 provided for a wage tax, half to be paid by the employee and half by the employer, to establish a federal retirement fund (Old Age Pension Act, Aug. 14, 1935, ch. 531, 49 Stat. 620). The Wealth Tax Act, also known as the Revenue Act of 1935, increased the maximum tax rate to 79 percent, the Revenue Acts of 1940 and 1941 increased it to 81 percent, the Revenue Act of 1942 raised it to 88 percent, and the Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 第 22 页 共 19 页 raised the individual maximum rate to 94 percent. The post-World War II Revenue Act of 1945 reduced the individual maximum tax from 94 percent to 91 percent. The Revenue Act of 1950, during the korean war, reduced it to 84.4 percent, but it was raised the next year to 92 percent (Revenue Act of 1950, Sept. 23, 1950, ch. 994, Stat. 906). It remained at this level until 1964, when it was reduced to 70 percent. The Revenue Act of 1954 revised the Internal Revenue Code of 1939, making major changes that were beneficial to the taxpayer, including providing for child care deductions (later changed to credits), an increase in the charitable contribution limit, a tax credit against taxable retirement income, employee deductions for business expenses, and liberalized depreciation deductions. From 1954 to 1962, the Internal Revenue Code was amended by 183 separate acts. In 1974 the employee retirement income security act (ERISA) created protections for employees whose employers promised specified pensions or other retirement contributions (Pub. L. No. 93-406, Sept. 2, 1974, 88 Stat. 829). ERISA required that to be tax deductible, the employers plan contribution must meet certain minimum standards as to employee participation and vesting and employer funding. ERISA also approved the use of individual retirement accounts (IRAs) to encourage tax- deferred retirement savings by individuals. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) provided the largest tax cut up to that time, reducing the maximum individual rate from 70 percent to 50 percent (Pub. L. No. 97-34, Aug. 13, 1981, 95 Stat. 172). The most sweeping tax changes since world war ii were enacted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986. This bill was signed into law by President ronald reagan and was designed to equalize the tax treatment of various assets, eliminate tax shelters, and lower marginal rates. Conservatives wanted the act to provide a single, low tax rate that could be applied to everyone. Although this single, flat rate was not included in the final bill, tax rates were reduced to 15 percent on the first $17,850 of income for singles and $29,750 for married couples, and set at 28 to 33 percent on remaining income. Many deductions were repealed, such as a deduction available to two- income married couples that had been used to avoid the “marriage penalty“ (a greater tax liability incurred when two persons filed their income tax return as a married couple rather than as individuals). Although the personal exemption exclusion was increased, an exemption for elderly and blind persons who itemize deductions was repealed. In addition, a special capital gains rate was repealed, as was an investment tax credit that had been introduced in 1962 by President john f. kennedy. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, the first budget and tax act enacted during the Clinton administration, was vigorously debated, and passed with only the minimum number of necessary votes. This law provided for income tax rates of 15, 28, 31, 36, and 39.6 percent on varying levels of income and for the taxation of social security income if the taxpayer receives other income over a certain level. In 2001 Congress enacted a major income tax cut at the urging of President george w. bush. Over the course of 11 years the law reduces marginal income tax rates across all levels of income. The 36 percent rate will be lowered to 33 percent, the 31 percent rate to 28 percent, the 28 percent rate to 25 percent. In addition, a new bottom 10 percent rate was created. Since the early 1980s, a flat-rate tax system rather than the graduated bracketed method has been proposed. (The graduated bracketed method is the one that has been used since graduated taxes were introduced: the percentage of tax differs based on the amount of taxable income.) The flat-rate system would impose one rate, such as 20 percent, on all income and would eliminate special deductions, credits, and exclusions. Despite firm support by some, the flat-rate tax has not been adopted in the United States. Regardless of the changes made by legislators since 1913, the basic formula for computing the amount of tax owed has remained basically the same. To determine the amount of income tax owed, certain deductions are taken from an individuals gross income to arrive at an adjusted gross income, from which additional deductions are taken to arrive at the taxable income. Once the amount of taxable income has been determined, tax rate charts determine the exact amount of tax owed. If the amount of tax owed is less than the amount already paid through tax prepayment or the withholding of taxes from paychecks, the taxpayer is entitled to a refund from the IRS. If the amount of tax owed is more than what has already been paid, 第 23 页 共 19 页 the taxpayer must pay the difference to the IRS. Calculating the gross income of restaurant employees whose income is partially derived from gratuities left by customers has led to disputes with the IRS and employers over how much they should contribute in federal insurance contribution act (fica) taxes. Although customers pay these tips directly to employees, federal law deems the tips to have been wages paid by the employer for FICA tax purposes. Employers are imputed to have paid large sums of money they never handled and for which they no way of ascertaining the exact amount. The Supreme Court, in United States v. Fior DItalia, 536 U.S. 238, 122 S. Ct. 2117, 153 L. Ed. 2d 280 (2002), upheld the IRS “aggregate method“ of reporting tip income. Instead of requiring the IRS to make individual determinations of unreported tips for each employee when calculating FICA tax, the Court held that the IRS could make employers report their gross sales on a monthly statement to help determine tip income. Employees also must report their tip income monthly on a form. The IRS then uses these two pieces of information to calculate what the employer needs to contribute in FICA tax.
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