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附录 附录 1： 英文原文 Process Planning and Concurrent Engineering The product design is the plan for the product and its components and subassemblies.To convert the product design into a physical entity ,a manufacturing plan is needed .The activity of developing such a plan is called process planning .It is the link between product design and manufacturing .Process planning involves determining the sequence of processing and assembly steps that must be accomplished to make the product .In the present chapter ,we e xamine processing planning and several related topics. At the outset ,we should distinguish between process planning and production planning ,which is covered in the following chapter. Process planning is concerned with the engineering and technological issues of how to make the products and its parts. What types of equipment and tooling are required to fabricate the parts and assemble the product ? Production planning is concerned with the logistics of making the product .After process planning is concerned with ordering the materials and obtaining the resources required to make the product in sufficient quantities to satisfy demand for it. Process Planning Process planning involves determining the most appropriate manufacturing and assembly processes and the sequence in which they should be accomplished to produce a given part or product according to specifications set forth in the product design documentation.The scope and variety of processes that can be planned are generally limited by the available processing equipment and technological capabilities of the company of plant .Parts that cannot be made internally must be purchased from outside vendors. It should be mentioned that the choice of processes is also limited by the details of the product design.This is a point we will return to later. Process planning is usually accomplished by manufacturing engineers .(Other titles include in industrial engineer.) The process planner must be familiar with the particular manufacturing processes available in the factory and be able to interpret engineering drawings .Based on the planners knowledge,skill,and experience ,the processing steps are developed in the most logical sequence to make each part .Following is a list of the many decisions and details usually include within the scope of process planning : .Interpretation of design drawings. The part of product design must be analyzed (materials,dimensions,tolerances ,surface finished,etc.) at the start of the process planning procedure. .Process and sequence. The process planner must select which processes are required and their sequence.A brief description of processing steps must be prepared. .Equipment selection . In general , process planners must develop plans that utilize existing equipment in the plant .Otherwise ,the component must be purchased ,or an investment must be made in new equipment . .Tools ,dies,molds,fixtures,and gages. The process must decide what tooling is required for each processing step.The actual design and fabrication of these tools is usually delegated to a tool design department and tool room ,or an outside vendor specializing in that type of tool is contacted. Methods analysis . Workplace layout ,small tools ,hoists for lifting heavy parts ,even in some cases hand and body motions must be specified for manual operations .The industrial engineering department is usually responsible for this area. .Work standards. Work measurement techniques are used to set time standards for each operation . .Cutting tools and cutting conditions. These must be specified for machining operations ,often with reference to standard handbook recommendations. Process Planning for parts For individual parts,the processing sequence is documented on a form called a route sheet .(Not all companies use the name route sheet ;another name is “operation sheet .”)Just as engineering drawings are used to specify the product design ,route sheets are used to specify the process plan .They are counterparts,one for product design ,the other for manufacturing .A typical route sheet includes the following information: (1) all operations to be performed on the work part ,listed in the order in which they should be performed ; (2) a brief description of each operation indicating the processing to be accomplished,with references to dimensions and tolerances on the part drawing; (3) the specific machines on which the work to be done; and (4) special tooling such as dies molds ,cutting tools,jigs or fixtures ,and gages.Some companies also include setup times ,cycle time standards,and other data.It is called a route sheet because the processing sequence defines the route that the part must follow in the factory . Decisions on process to be used to fabricate a given part are based largely on the starting material for the part .This starting material is selected by the product designer.Once the material has been specified ,the range of the possible processing operation is reduced considerably .The product designers decisions on starting material are based primarily on functional requirements ,although economics and manufacturability a role in the selection. A typical processing sequence to fabricate an individual part consists of : (1) a basic process,(2)secondary processes ,(3) operations to enhance physical properties,and (4)finishing operations. A basic process determines the starting geometry of the workpart.Metal casting ,plastic molding ,and roling of sheet metal are examples of basic processes.The starting geometry must often be refined by secondary processes,operations that transform the starting geometry (or close to final geometry ).The secondary geometry processes that might be used are closely correlated to the basic process that provides the starting geometry.When sand casting is the basic processes,machining operations are generally the second processes .When a rolling mill produces sheet metal,stamping operations such as punching and bending are the secondary processes.When plastic injection molding is the basic process ,secondary operations are often unnecessary,because most of the geometric features that would otherwise require machining can be created by the molding operation.Plastic molding and other operation that require no subsequent secondary processing are called net shape processes.Operations that require some but not much secondary processing (usually machining ) are referred to as near net shape processes.Some impression die forgings are in this category .These parts can often be shaped in the forging operation(basic processes)so that minimal machining (secondary processing )is required . Once the geometry has been established ,the next step for some parts is to improve their mechanical and physical properties .Operations to enhance properties do not alter the geometry of the part;instead,they alter physical properties .Heat treating operations on metal parts are the most common examples .Similar heating treatments are performed on glass to produce tempered glass.For most manufactured parts ,these property-enhancing operations are not required in the processing sequence. Finally finish operations usually provide a coat on the work parts (or assembly )surface. Examples inclued electroplating ,thin film deposition techniques ,and painting.The purpose of the coating is to enhance appearance ,change color ,or protect the surface from corrosion,abrasion ,and so forth .Finishing operations are not required on many parts ;for example, plastic molding rarely require finishing .When finishing is required ,it is usually the final step in the processing sequence . Processing Planning for Assemblies The type of assembly method used for a given product depends on factors such as : (1) the anticipated production quantities ;(2) complexity of the assembled product ,for example ,the number of distinct components ;and (3)assembly processes used ,for example ,mechanical assembly versus welding .For a product that is to be made in relatively small quantities ,assembly is usually performed on manual assembly lines .For simple products of a dozen or so components,to be made in large quantities ,automated assembly systems are appropriate .In any case ,there is a precedence order in which the work must be accomplished .The precedence requirements are sometimes portrayed graphically on a precedence diagram. Process planning for assembly involves development of assembly instructions,but in more detail .For low production quantities,the entire assembly is completed at a single station .For high production on an assembly line ,process planning consists o f allocating work elements to the individual stations of the line, a procedure called line balancing.The assembly line routes the work unit to individual stations in the proper order as determined by the line balance solution.As in process planning for individual components ,any tools and fixtures required to accomplish an assembly task must be determined ,designed,and built;and the workstation arrangement must be laid out. Make or Buy Decision An important question that arises in process planning is whether a given part should be produced in the companys own factory or purchased from an outside vendor ,and the answer to this question is known as the make or buy decision .If the company does not possess the technological equipment or expertise in the particular manufacturing processes required to make the part ,then the answer is obvious: The part must be purchased because there is no internal alternative .However ,in many cases ,the part could either be made internally using existing equipment ,or it could be purchased externally from a vendor that process similar manufacturing capability. In our discussion of the make or buy decision ,it should be recognized at the outset that nearly all manufactures buy their raw materials from supplies .A machine shop purchases its starting bar stock from a metals distributor and its sand castings from a foundry .A plastic molding plant buys its molding compound from a chemical company.A stamping press factory purchases sheet metal either fro a distributor or direct from a rolling mill.Very few companies are vertically integrated in their production operations all the way from raw materials ,it seems reasonable to consider purchasing at least some of the parts that would otherwise be produced in its own plant.It is probably appropriate to ask the make or buy question for every component that is used by the company . There are a number of factors that enter into the make or buy decision .We have complied a list of the factors and issues that affect the decision in Table .One would think that cost is the most important factor in determining whether to produce the part or purchase it .If an outside vendor is more proficient than the companys own plant in the manufacturing processes used to make the part ,then the internal production cost is likely to be greater than the purchase price even after the vendor has included a profit .However ,if the decision to purchase results in idle equipment and labor in the companys own plant ,then the apparent advantage of purchasing the part may be lost .Consider the following example come to make or buy decision. The quoted price for a certain part is $20.00 per unit for 100 units .The part can be produced in the companys own plant for $28.00. The components of making the part are as follows : Unit raw material cost = $8.00 per unit Direct labor cost =6.00 per unit Labor overhead at 150%=9.00 per unit Equipment fixed cost =5.00 per unit _ Total =28.00 per uniit Factors in the Make or Buy decision Factor Explanation and Effect on Make/Buy Decision How do part costs compare? This must be considered the most important factor in the make or buy decision.However,the cost comparision is not always clear 续表： Is the process available in-house? If the equipment and technical expertise for a given process are not available internally,then purchasing is the obvious decision .Vendors usually become very proficient in certain processes ,which often makes them cost competitive in external-internal comparisons .However ,there may be long-term cost implications for the company if it does not develop technological expertise in certain processes that are important for the types of products it makes. What is the total production quantity? The total number of units required over the life of the product is a key factor .As the total production quanity increases ,this tends to favor the make decision .Lower quanities favor the buy decision. What is the anticipated product life? Longer product life tends to favor the decision Is the component a standard item? Standard catalog items (e.g.,hardware items such as bolts ,screws,nuts ,and other commodity items )are produced economically by suppliers specializing in those products .Cost comparisions almost always favor a purchase decision on these standard parts Is the supplier reliable ? A vendor that misses a delivery on a critical component can cause a shutdown at the companys final assembly plant .Suppliers with proven delivery and quality records are favored over supplies with lesser records . Is the companys plant already operating at full capacity In peak demand periods ,the company may be forced to augment list own plant capacity by purchasing a portion of the required production for external vendors 续表： Does the company need an alternative supply source? Companys sometimes purchased parts from external vendors to maintain an alternative source to their own production plants .This is an attempt to ensure an uniterrupted supply of parts ,e.g.,as a safeguard against a wildcat strike at the companys parts production plant. Should the component by bought or made in-house? Solution :Although the vendors quote seems to favor a buy decision ,let us consider the possible impact on plant operations if the quote is accepted.Equipment fixed cost of $5.00 is an allocated cost based on investment that was already made .If the equipment designed for this job becomes unutilized because of a decision to purchase the part ,then the fixed cost continues even if the equipment stands idle .In the same way ,the labor overhead cost of $9.00 consists of factory space ,utility ,and labor costs that remain even if the part is purchased .By this reasoning ,a buy decision is not a good decision because it might be cost the company as much as $20.00+$5.0+$9.00=$34.00 per unit if it results in idle time on the machine that would have been used to produce the part .On the other hand ,if the equipment in question can be used for the production of other parts for which the in-house costs are less than the corresponding outside quotes ,then a buy decision is a good decision ., Make or buy decision are not often as straightforward as in this example .The other factors listed in Table also affect the decision .A trend in recent years ,especially in the automobile industry ,is for companies to stress the importance of building close relationships with parts suppliers .We turn to this issue in our later discussion of concurrent engineering. Computer-aided Process Planning There is much interest by manufacturing firms in automating the task of process planning using computer-aided process planning (CAPP) systems .The shop-trained people who are familiar with the details of machining and other processes are gradually retiring ,and these people will be available in the future to do process planning .An alternative way of accomplishing this function is needed ,and CAPP systems are providing this alternative .CAPP is usually considered to be part of computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) .However ,this tends to imply that CAM is a stand-along system .In fact ,a synergy results when CAM is combined with computer-aided design to create a CAD/CAM system .In such a system ,CAPP becomes the direct connection between design and manufacturing .The benefits derived from computer-automated process planning include the following: .Process rationalization and standardization .Automated process planning leads to more logical and consistent process plans than when process is done completely manually .Standard plans tend to result in lower manufacturing costs and higher product quality. .Increased productivity of process planner . The systematic approach and the availability of standard process plans in the data files permit more work to be accomplished by the process planners. .Reduced lead time for process planning . Process planner working with a CAPP system can provide route sheets in a shorter lead time compared to manual preparation . .Improved legibility . Computer-prepared rout sheets are neater and easier to read than manually prepared route sheets. .Incorporation of other applicaton programs. The CAPP program can be interfaced with other application programs,such as cost estimating and work standards. Computer-aided process planning systems are designed around two approaches.These approaches are called : (1) retrieval CAPP systems and (2) generative CAPP systems .Some CAPP systems combine the two approaches in what is known as semi-generative CAPP. Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturing Concurrent engineering refers to an approach used in product development in which the functions of design engineering ,manufacturing engineering ,and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product to market, Also called simultaneous engineering ,it might be thought of as the organizational counterpart to CAD/CAM technology.In the traditional approach to launching a new product ,the two functions of design engineering and manufacturing engineering tend to be separated and sequential,as illustrated in Fig (a).The product design department develops the new design ,sometimes without much consideration given to the manufacturing capabilities of the company ,There is little opportunity for manufacturing engineers to offer advice on how the design might be alerted to make it more manufacturable.It is as if a wall exits between design and manufacturing.When the design engineering department completes the design ,it tosses the drawings and specifications over the wall ,and only then does process planning begin. Comparision : (a) traditionnal product development cycle and (b) product development using concurrent engineering By contrast,in a company that practices concurrent engineering ,the manufacturing engineering department becomes involved in the product development cycle early on ,pro viding advice on how the product and its components can be designed to facilitate manufacture and assembly.It also proceeds with early stages of manufacturing planning for the product .This concurrent engineering approach is pictured in Fig (b). In addition to manufacturing engineering ,other function are also involved in the product development cycle ,such as quality engineering ,the manufacturing departments ,field service ,vendors supplying critical components ,and in some cases the customer who will use the product .All if these functions can make contributions during product development to improve not only the new products function and performance,but also its produceability ,inspectability ,testability ,serviceability ,and Product design Manufacturing engineering and process planning Production and assembly The “wall” between design and manufaturing Product launch time,traditional design/manufacturing cycle Difference in product launch time (a)Traditional product development cycle Product design Sales and marketing Quality engineering Vendors Manufacturing engineering and process planning Production and assembly Product lauch time,concurrent engineering (b) product development using concurrent engineering maintainability .Th
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